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ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS 



OF 



THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 
OF NATURAL HISTORY 

VOL. XVIII, Part i 



ZUNI POTSHERDS 

BY 

A. L. KROEBER 



NEV\^ YORK 

PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES 
1916 



i 



American Museum of Natural History. 

PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 



In 1906 the present series of Antliropological Papers was authorized by the 
Trustees of the Museum to record the results of research conducted by the Depart- 
ment of Anthropology. The series comprises octavo volumes of about 350 pages 
each, issued in parts at irregular intervals. Previous to 1906 articles devoted to 
anthropological subjects appeared as occasional papers in the Bulletin and also in 
the Memoir series of the Museum. A complete list of these publications with prices 
will be furnished when requested. All communications should be addressed to the 
Librarian of the Museum. 

The recent issues are as follows: — 

Volume X. 

I. Chipewyan Texts. By PUny Earle Goddard. Pp. 1-66. 1912. Price, 
$1.00. 

II. Analysis of Cold Lake Dialect, Chipewyan. By Pliny Earle Goddard. 
Pp. 67-170, and 249 text figures. 1912 Price, $1.00. 

III. Chipewyan Tales. By Robert H. Lowie. Pp. 171-200. 1912. Price, 
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IV (In preparation). 

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I. Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton- 
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II. Dance Associations of the Eastern Dakota. By Robert H. Lowie. Pp. 
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IV. Societies and Dance Associations of the Blackfoot Indians. By Clark 
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461-474. 1914. Price, $.25. 

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Plains-Cree Indians. By Alanson Skinner. Pp. 475-542, and 10 text figures. 

1914. Price, $.75. 

VII. Pawnee Indian Societies. By James R. Murie. Pp. 543-644, and 18 
text figures. 1914. Price, $1.00. 

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1915. Price, $.50. 

IX. Societies of the Iowa, Kansa, and Ponca Indians. By Alanson Skinner. 
Pp. 679-801, and 5 text figures. 1915. Price, $1.00. 

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803-835. 1915. Price, $.25. 

XI. Societies of the Kiowa. By Robert H. Lowie. Pp. S37-S51. 19 If.. 
Price, $.25. 

XII. (In preparation). 

(Continued on Sd p. of cover.) 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS 



OF 



THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 
OF NATURAL HISTORY 

Vol. XVIII, Part I 



ZUNI POTSHERDS 

BY 

A. L. KROEBER 



NEW YORK 

PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES 
1910 



CiH^/A- 



Monoffrapli 



^^-' 



ZUNI POTSHERDS. 
By a. L. Kroeber. 



PREFACE. 

This paper was written at Zuni in the summer of 1915. Its materials 
are limited and its interpretations avowedly tentative. It was not feasible 
to extend the scope of the essay without undertaking work that circum- 
stances rendered impossible at the time. Nor did the range and nature 
of the materials dealt with appear to warrant a subsequent recasting in the 
light of the available published investigations relating to the subject. The 
paper is therefore presented as written at the time and on the spot, except 
for a brief postscript dealing with the literature and certain comparative 
data. 

February, 1916. 



CONTENTS. 



PREFACE 

ZUNI POTSHERDS . 

NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL SITES 

PiNNAWA .... 

Mattsakya .... 
Kyakkima .... 
Kolliwa .... 

SiteW 

Tot\tvayallanna . 
Wimmayawa .... 

SHOPTLirmV^AYALA OR ShOPTLU"\VW> 

He'i'tli'annanna . 
SiteY . 
Site X . 
Shunntekkya 
"Hawwikku B" 

POSTSCRIPT 



Page. 
3 

7 
22 
22 
22 
22 
24 
28 
28 
30 
31 
32 
33 
33 
34 
34 
35 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Text Figures. 



1 . West Kolliwa 

2. East Kolliwa 



27 



ZUNI POTSHERDS. 

In the course of a study of family life made at the pueblo of Zufii during 
the summer of 1915, I recorded the native names of a number of ancient 
villages in and near Zufii Valley. A late afternoon walk a few days after- 
wards brought me to where Mattsakya once stood, a mile and a half east 
of the town of Zuni. The wall outlines which Mindeleff still traced have 
mostly disappeared in thirty years, save for two rooms and where a prairie 
dog hole had laid bare a few feet of masonry that otherwise would have 
been hidden. The quantity of broken rock on the surface, the sharp rise 
of the knoll, and the maintained shrine, or rather two, on its summit — 
the last, as it proved, an almost certain evidence of former occupation of the 
spot — all howe^^e^ indicated a ruin even to the novice in archaeology. 
A few moments revealed a pottery fragment or two. At first the sherds 
were difficult to see and harder to distinguish from the numerous minute 
slabs of stone. A quarter of an hour, however, practised the eye; and the 
short time remaining before darkness sufficed to fill my pockets. 

A few afternoons later, I went out in the opposite direction, toward 
Pinnawa, a mile or more to the west. Proceeding first to the northwestern 
edge of the present suburbs of the town to see the communal "scalp house," 
I noted another shrine or monument a few hundred feet to the north, 
directly in front of the government day school. This occupied the center 
of a slight rise, perhaps a yard above the surrounding plain and two hundred 
or more feet in diameter. The ground was strewn with small rounded and 
variously colored pebbles, such as do not occur in the fine red clay of the 
levels of Zufii valley. In a few seconds sharp-edged fragments of flint or 
chert appeared, and then occasional bits of pottery. A passing Zufii 
named the spot Shoptluw^'ayala ; its shrine is connected with the yellow 
Sallimoppiya dance character. The pottery was not abundant; but a 
pocketful was secured. 

I went westward, still on the north side of the broad bed of the Zuni 
River; toward a knoll nearly a mile ahead, into which the stream had cut 
a vertical bank. The rise in the ground made me suspect an ancient site 
of human occupation. Again the smooth pebbles were conspicuous; and 
then bits of chipped rock and potsherds were seen lying here a,nd there. 
Hattsinawa was the name the Zufii gave me next morning. As at Shoptluw- 
wayala, there was not a single building stone visible, nor anything that 
might have been a fragment of one; nor did the cut bank reveal any, 



8 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

although pottery pieces lay on the surface to its edge. Another pocketful 
wks the harvest. 

I followed the ri^er bed down a couple of hundred j^ards, and walked 
across the remnants of the stream — most of which was flowing through 
irrigation ditches into Zuni fields — at Pinnawa. This site is the terminus 
of a long spur running from the southern hills to a low end at the river. 
Only a few steps from the stream there la^^- some broken rock of the t\'pe 
that litters Mattsakya but is wanting at Shoptluwwayala and Hattsinawa. 
Pottery at first was scant ; but as I proceeded up the nose of the hill, the 
throw-out from every prairie dog hole was decorated by from one to half 
a dozen fragments. Toward the summit of the knoll and the inevitable 
shrine — only a few yards from the wagon road — both rock and potsherds 
lay thick, with chipped pebbles here and there. The site is also more exten- 
sive than either of the two preceding ones; and a few minutes sufficed for a 
larger haul. 

It was immediately apparent that red, black, and patterned potsherds 
predominated here, as they seemed to have preponderated at Mattsakya, 
while white fragments had been in the majority at both Shoptluw-wayala 
and Hattsinawa. I therefore attempted to pick up all sherds visible in 
certain spots, rather than range o\'er the whole site and stoop only for the 
attractive ones. In this I may not have been altogether successful, for a 
red, a patterned, or a deep black fragment catches the eye more readily 
than either a "black" or a "white" one that ranges toward dull gray. 
But at least the endeavor was conscientious. 

Next morning my finds were washed and dried — an unnecessary pro- 
ceeding, I soon found — then sorted and counted. A tabulation thoroughly 
confirmed the mental impression of the evening before. At Mattsakya and 
Pmnawa, black or blackish pieces predominated; red ones were fairly 
nymerous, white ones less so. At Shoptluwwayala and Hattsinawa, white 
predominated, and black and red were rare. The corrugated ware showed 
snnilarly: at Mattsakya and Pinnawa black sherds were as abundant as 
white, at the two other sites the black were lacking, the white frequent. 
The black corrugated ware usually runs to a dark or dull gray, the white 
IS nearly always pale.buff, pinkish, or light gray; but there were few doubt- 
ful pieces. There were other differences. At the "black and red" sites, 
a few three-colored sherds were found; at the white ones, none. The two 
former were extensive and heavily littered with good-sized rock fragments, 
as one would expect at a stone built ruin. The latter showed no rock, but a 
somewhat more sandy soil than prevails in most of the red clayey Zuni 
plain, with some admixture of waterworn pebbles, scarcely any more than 
an inch in length, and of surprisingly diverse colors. ' The "presence at 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 9 

Mattsakya and Pinnawa of one or two tiny bits of obsidian, which was 
unrepresented at Shopthiwwayala and Hattsinawa, was not altogether 
conclusive, on account of the small total yield of the two last named; but 
it seemed significant, as it does still. Finally, Mattsakya and Pinnawa had 
been previously mentioned to me by Zuni informants as places inhabited 
in the innotc or long ago. Shopthiwwayala and Hattsinawa were named 
only on designation and inquiry. 

There could be no doubt that here, within a half hour's radius of the 
largest inliabited pueblo, were prehistoric remains of two types and two 
periods, as distinct as oil and water. The condition of the sites indicated 
the black and red ware ruins as the more recent; but certain misleading 
observations of the pottery in use in the Zuni homes of today left me in 
doubt for a time. These observations rested upon fact, but the facts are 
due to the influence of American civilization, and would not have obtained 
a couple of generations ago. Once these circumstances were compre- 
hended, the chronological priority of the white ware tj-pe became certain. 

I recalled the surveys and excavations of many years ago, and a con- 
fused impression of a mass of sherds and similar uninspiring pieces obtained 
for the Hemenway Expedition under the direction of the memorable Gush- 
ing, sent in an exchange from the Peabody Museum to the University of 
California, and now stored there in a pile of trays. But an accumulation 
of dust and the familiar name Halona were all that emerged with distinct- 
ness. I searched my mind for published reports of the work that must 
have been done in the region — vainly : if anything was in print, it had been 
forgotten in fifteen years during which my reading on the American South- 
west had been desultory; and I was remote from bibliographies. Victor 
Mindeleff 's study of Pueblo Ai'chitecture, for which I had sent in connection 
with researches into the clans and town growth of Zuni itself, I found trul\' 
admirable, and it contained valuable plots and descriptions of ruins; but 
they did not touch on my problem. The final clinching was given by 
Hodge's most useful summary of the history of Cibola and Zuni, included 
in that tremendous research which wall alw\ays be fundamental to all studies 
of the Zuni and which is the great labor of the life of Matilda Coxe Steven- 
son, who died far away while I was forming my first friendships with her 
old friends. In Hodge's meaty compendium I found that Mattsakya and 
perhaps Pinnawa were inhabited Zuili villages in 1598, and in all likelihood 
when Coronado stormed Hawwikku in 1540, and that at least Mattsakya 
was a place of abode until the great revolt of 1680. 

The fate of Mattsakya was also that of Kyakkima, a better preserved 
ruin nestling against the giant cliffs of Tow\\'ayallanna, four miles southeast 
of Ittiwawa, "the middle," as Zuni is for the world, in the belief of its resi- 



10 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

dents. The pottery of Kyakkima should accordingly be that of Mattsakya. 
It proved to be so. A hundred seconds on its debris settled the identity. 

Not only, then, are there the type and period of white ware and the 
type and period of black and of red ware, but the latter is the more recent. 
It belongs in part to the time of early American histor\'; the former is 
wholly prehistoric. I call the historic Type A, the prehistoric Type B, 
since further exploration or study may reveal another prehistoric Type C. 

Pinnawa was revisited, and a larger collection of fragments brought 
home. Their relative numbers tallied as they should with the first lot, 
considering the chances of accident in such small series. Sherds continue 
some distance to the south of the wagon road that crosses the spur just south 
of the little summit of the site. My companion and I continued a quarter 
of a mile south, or southeasterly, up the gently sloping ridge to Tetlnatluw- 
wayala, a shrine of one of the war god twins. The shrine led me to believe 
in an underlie of ruin; and it was there. There was no shadow of doubt as 
to period : every sherd but one was white. Even the corrol)orating pebbles, 
and absence of building sandstone, did not fail. The pottery was not 
abundant on the surface and again the industry of the prairie dogs proved 
a boon. 

We went on along the ridge, down a slight dip, across the deeply washed 
trail that the bearded gods tread as they file from the southwest into Zuni 
in the evening of the first summer solstice dance, and up again to the next 
low summit, where I remembered seeing a piece of lava, perhaps from a 
thousand year old grinding slab, on an earlier walk dictated by want of 
exercise and before thoughts of archaeology entered my mind. The spot 
is perhaps an eighth of a mile from Tetlnatluwwayala. As nearly as the 
lieutenant governor could later follow my index from a Zufii roof, he judged 
it to be Te'allatashshhanna; but he may have misjudged the direction of 
my finger, or meant a more distant place: I am not certain of the name. 
I could not find the lava; but a short distance to the west, and a little 
higher, was another shrine. The hillock was of loose white sand, wind 
deposited and in spots wind eroded, though mostly covered with vegeta- 
tion. In one of the bare depressions, and over a small patch on the leeward 
slope, lay a handful of pottery fragments. Again all but one were white. 

We rode to Kyakkima with the lieutenant governor. As we approached 
the trickle that issued from the spring at the foot of a recess in the cliffs, 
a whitish spot on the sandy soil caught my eye. I sensed a tj'pe B sherd; 
but the officer said Kyakkima lay ahead. We drank at the head of the 
spring; then crossed the streamlet and ascended the steep slope to the east. 
Here was Kyakkima, where some five hundred Zufii once lived in a town of 
four levels. On the higher terraces the walls that Mindeleft' plotted still 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 11 

stand; half way down is the ever present shrine with the dry rotting prayer 
sticks from which the plumes have blown. The site is large, the pottery 
abundant, and much of it attractive. I filled one pocket with an average 
sample, in which dull black was picked up undiscriminatingly with striking 
black on red and black on yellow patterns. Then we hunted pretty pieces. 
To keep any of the collection in the open pockets of the only coat among 
us on the ride home, part of it had to be jettisoned. The plain black pieces 
were abandoned; but unless some wandering Zuni sheep herder or traveler 
has in mild surprise brushed them from the large rock by the spring, they 
still lie on its surface, to verify my coimt of them, while the reader scans 
lliis page. 

But the white spot was not forgotten, and before the horses were re- 
mounted a ramble over the slope west of the rivulet produced a couple of 
dozen sherds — two red, all the remainder whitish. As usual, building 
stone was not in evidence, but pebbles and boulders occurred through the 
sandy soil. There is no shrine; nor does there appear to be a Zuiii name for 
the exact spot. I have named it Kyakkima Sunnhakwi, Kyakkima West. 
It is not a site that suggests itself for habitation. Possibly it is only the 
outer fringe of a once larger settlement of period B of which the main portion 
is covered by the Kyakkima of period A. 

It is unnecessary to continue the narrative. Other " ruins " subsequently 
visited conform to the two types; such data concerning them as were noted, 
are included in the tabulations and in the memoranda appended. It is 
observable that of the type B sites, Hattsinawa and one other show a fair 
proportion of red ware. They therefore belong to the end of age B, or 
possibly to the first dawnings of that later period which was still blooming 
in the sixteenth and scA'cnteenth centuries of our era. 

The white slip pottery of the prehistoric time in Zuni Valley is clearly, 
in general, of the familiar Cliff-Dweller type. Even the black and white 
checker board ornamentation so familiar from museum and private collec- 
tions, is represented. A deviation from the colorless grayish white of most 
Cliff-Dweller specimens to a light buff or yellowish or pinkish white in many 
of the Zuiii pieces, may be the result of a peculiarity of the local clay. 

Careful explorers in Arizona have warned against too much weight being 
given to color when inferences are drawn. Yellow ware in a ruin may be 
more indicative of the chemical constitution of the soil than of a type of 
civilization. I am ready to subscribe to this caution as heartily as anyone. 
It does not apply to this study of Zuni antiquity because every ruin touched 
lies within the same valley, because all those examined are within an hour's 
distance of the pueblo, and because at least two pairs of ruins of differing 
periods are only a quarter of a mile or less apart. 



12 Anihrojjological Papers American Museum oj Natural History. [Vol. XVIII^ 

Zuiii pottery of 1915, which may be found in every household, is over- 
whelmingly a white or creamy yellowish white slip ware, patterned either 
with black or with black and red; but in the latter case, the areas of black 
exceed those of red. The reason for this prevalence of white surface is 
that the pottery in use is confined principally to two types: water jars, 
usually large but low; and great open bowls for bread kneading. Now and 
then may be seen a canteen of breast shape, also with black or black and red 
ornamentation; a high jar, of plain polished red, used both for storage 
and as a drum; and a water jar, usually small, with red inside and bottom — 
the red being burned yellow ocher. There are some black cooking pots: 
I have seen a number with handles or knobs, none really corrugated. Most 
of them stand unused in interior storerooms; occasionally one is set on the 
hearth fire to parch or pop corn, more rarely to cook in. The Zuhi woman 
now cooks in a frying pan or in agate ware, and serves food either in this 
vessel or in a china dish or rectangular lava bowl. A hundred, perhaps 
twenty-five years ago, this was not the case; and I am confident that debris 
from the town streets of that time would have shown nearly the same 
proportion of blackish ware as occurs at Mattsakya and Kyakkima, simply 
because the native cook pots had not yet gone out of use before American 
made substitutes. A few holes dug a yard or two deep in the streets or 
fallen houses of Zufii will confirm or disprove my prediction. 

I now began to observe sherds around the town. In the course of an 
afternoon's survey on the housetops, I gathered as many pieces as I could 
carry without interfering with the work in hand. More than half were 
blackish, and at that I probably desisted sooner from trying to pry out of 
the hard baked clay obstinately imbedded pieces of this shade than gaily 
colored ones. 

It seemed however that the prevalence of black on the roofs might be 
due to the blowing over of chimneys, which in former times were regularly, 
and now still often, made of cracked or broken cook pots. Stooping through 
the streets of the town was hardly calculated to enhance my standing in 
Zuiii, so I delegated the task to four children of my "family," who fell to 
the work with zeal, and I am confident observed as closely as they could 
my instructions to collect without discrimination. An afternoon netted 
them over a thousand fragments, large and small. A third of these I class 
as black; more than half were black or black and red on white, and at least 
some of the white sherds are from jars of this type. My youthful aids 
reported that in the vicinity of the great plaza, in the very heart of the town, 
black pieces w^ere scarce, but that toward the northwestern edge of the 
pueblo proper, — not of the suburbs or outlying houses — they became 
numerous. Both red and black on red pieces were found, though they 
aggregate only two or three percent of the total. 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 13 

I believe this collection reasonably trustworthy. While dark sherds 
may have been a little slighted, they are far more numerous than I should 
have predicted after a month of frequenting Zuni homes. When the 
changes in habits are considered that recent years have worked, it is a fair 
inference that a similar gathering made in a stratum a few feet below the 
present level of the streets would contain about one half black pieces, and 
correspondingly fewer of the patterned water jar type. In short, Zuni 
potsherds of 1915 actually approximate those of type A, while those of 1815 
may be expected to differ hardly at all, in color proportions, from those of 
1615 or perhaps 1515. I suspect that a gradual diminution of the red ground 
ware, and perhaps of corrugated, is the chief change that has taken place 
(in the features considered) in the centuries since the discovery. 

A few minor alterations may however be noted. The round lines of 
the deer and birds and scrolls on some modern Zuni jars, are almost utterly 
lacking from the early historic sherds. This fact substantiates the convic- 
tion gained from museum inspection of modern Pueblo ware, that these 
designs are not native but the result of European influence, though to the 
Zuni woman of today they seem as truly Shiwwi or pure Zuni as do the 
angles she paints around them, or with which she covers the whole of the 
next jar she makes. Patterns in type A pottery are not infrequently lus- 
trous — perhaps not a true glaze, but with a distinct glassy shine. The 
art or custom of producing this has perhaps died out since the sixteenth 
century. Red ware with black patterns seems to be no longer made: at 
least I have seen none in Zuni except in a few specimens pronounced old. 
Red ware with overpainted white lines is still occasionally manufactured, 
though I believe mostly in bric-a-brac and tourist articles; but this was 
infreciuent also in period A. Most of the vessels in use today have their 
black pattern, if not a true black, at least a very dark brown. This is 
due to the mixing of the pigment with water containing either cedar, or 
ky'ahhewe, or another plant extract. The small, four-sided, step-edged 
bowls still used for sacred cornmeal — whose a^'erage age may be a genera- 
tion more than that of household bowls and jars — mostly have their frog 
and tadpole patterns in walnut brown, the above dyes not having been used 
with the pigment. Much of the tj^e A "black" decoration is of the same 
shade; especially on yellow or yellowish background. The prayer bowls 
also incline to a yellowish slip; so that they connect the twentieth with the 
sixteenth century in two ways. A distinct green, usually lustrous and 
sometimes bright, which is occasional on type A pieces, seems however to 
have no equivalent today. 

The ware of type B, of type A, and of today, shows white or gray along 
the fractured edge. It is rarely reddish, or red like Southern California 



14 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

pottery. This is presumably a characteristic of the local clays. There are 
some ancient and modern fragments, mostly thick and coarse, l)urned red 
through; but the majority of red pieces are covered with a highly polished 
slip of that color. 

History tells us that the people of period A were Zuni, speaking and 
essentially living as now. The men and women who inhabited the sites 
of p)eriod B belonged to the unidentified prehistoric past. We cannot say 
that they were or were not Zuni; but there is no known fact which prevents 
them from having been of this nation. That their ruins are low and soil- 
covered can be explained by reason of their age: that they are small in 
extent, in the open country, and located with reference to water supply or 
farm land or imknown considerations rather than for defensive, protection, 
indicates a somewhat different life in the prehistoric period. I have not 
turned a spadeful of earth in the Zuni country. But the outlines of a 
thousand years' civilizational changes which the surface reveals are so clear, 
that there is no question of the wealth of knowledge that the groimd holds 
for the critical but not over timid excavator. 

The results obtained are assembled in the statistics that follow. Table 1 
gives the number of sherds, of each of the ten colors or tj-pes established for 
classification, at each ruin of period A; table 2, the same for period B. Lots 
obtained on separate visits to the same site are listed separately. It must 
be remembered that in all cases covered by these two tables, representative 
collecting was aimed at. For this reason the average sample from Kyak- 
kima in table 1 must be carefully distinguished from the selected collection 
made on the same site but analyzed in table 7. 

Table 3 converts the absolute numbers of table 1 and 2 into percentages. 
It speaks for itself. 

Table 4 is a summarization of 3, on the basis of the three fundamental 
colors, black, white, and red. Of sherds colored differently on their two 
sides, or having a pattern in two or three colors, all containing any red have 
been counted as "red"; of the remainder, all are included under "white" 
which bear any white. This arrangement gives red somewhat the advantage 
and black the disadvantage among the three colors; but any other method 
of summarizing would have been subject to an equal degree of arbitrariness. 
At any rate, table 4 reveals clearly, even to those who may not care to 
absorb the more numerous figures of the preceding lists, the distinctness of 
the two periods. In the historic time, "A," black preponderates, and red 
about equals white ware. In the prehistoric period, "B," white is over- 
whelmingly in excess and both black and red occur only scatteringly. 

As my study progressed, I frequently found it difficult to divide the 
corrugated pottery into "black" and "white," and the difference between 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 15 

periods A and B as regards this ware became apparent as one of total fre- 
quency rather than of difference of tint, though it is true that period B 
corrugated samples are almost throughout distinctly whitish. I also recalled 
that real corrugated ware is said by the Zuni not to be made today, and is 
very scarce among the street debris, while most of the period A ruins show 
an appreciable percentage, though small compared with the t}npe B sites. 
Further, the only really large proportion of corrugated pieces from any 
period A locality was at site W, which in its lack of building stone and 
general appearance resembles a t}-pe B site; next to it comes Pinna wa, which 
is more decayed as a ruin than even Mattsakj-a, and far more than all the 
others. It therefore seemed as if a progressive decrease of the proportion 
of corrugated ware of an}' color were a characteristic of the lapse of time 
in Zuni Valley irrespective of "period"; and I arranged the sites in order 
accordingly. Two of the minor sites of period B did not fit into the series; 
but both of these also showed other special characteristics, in their slip 
ware. On the other hand, Hattsinawa, which I had before classed as late B 
on account of its high proportion of red sherds, as well as because it is 
located on a more distinct knoll than any of the other B sites, comes nearer 
to the A ruins, in its frequency of corrugated ware, than any B sites except 
Kyakkima West, and from this latter the sample was of the smallest. 

A subdivision of the two periods was thus indicated. I tested the 
obtained sequence of sites with several color characteristics. The results, 
which are given in detail in table 5, are surprisingly corroborative and allow 
of a tentative discrimination of five sub-periods, or six if modem Zuiii be 
included. Briefl\', corrugated ware preponderated in the very earliest 
epoch, and diminished through all periods until it has died out in the present. 
On the other hand, three-colored pottery, — black and red patterns on a 
white or yellow ground — is wanting in B, appears sporadically in early A, 
becomes more numerous in late A, and reaches its climax today. Black 
on red ware, on the other hand, is most abundant about the middle time. 
It has not been found in early B, while late A and the present reveal a 
decline from middle and late B and early A. For red and for black pottery 
in general, the relative figures for period A are not worth anything; but in 
both classes the period B sites show an increasing approximation to period A 
proportions in the order of their age as suggested by the corrugated ware. 
I believe it may be concluded, while t\^e B and type A sites can normally 
be distinguished without the least uncertainty, and the separateness of the 
two is fundamental, that nevertheless they do not represent tw^o different 
migrations, nationalities, or waves of culture, but rather a steady and con- 
tinuous development on the soil. 



16 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natuial History. [Vol. XVIII, 




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1916. 



Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 



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Anthropological Papers Amencan Muneum of Nniurnl History. [Vol. XVIII, 



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Black'' 
Red 
White 

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Three colors 





S 3 



191(3.1 



Kroeber, Zuili Potsherds. 



19 



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20 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Yo\. X\'III, 



TABLE 5. 



Percextages. 



Late A 



Early A 



Late B 



Middle B 



Earlx B 



? — B 



Three 

Colors 



S 



Black oti 



Red 
1 
3 ' 



"Black" 
Any Red ware 



Period Site Corrugated 

Presext Ziini O'^ 

Towwaj'allaima 1 

Kolliwa — 7 2 

Shumitekkya 2 7 2 

^^'immayawa 2 4 1 

ALattsakya 3 4 3 

Kj'akkima 4 3 2 

Pinnawa 10 1 8 

SiteW 24 — 1 

Hattsinawa 27 — 5 

Kyakkima West 12'- — 4 

/ Shoptlawwayala 40 — 2 

\ "Hawwikku B" 49 — 6 

iTe'allatashshhamia GO — — — 5 

Site X 71 — — 3 1 

Tetlnatluwwayala 72 — — 2 — 

j He'i'tli'annanna — — — — 3 

\ Site Y _____ 

'^ Present, but less than half of one percent. 

^ The variation between sites here lumped seems due more to accident or selection 
in collectmg than to differences typical of period. 

"^ LTufortunately only 25 pieces are available from this site. 



22*^ 



10 
8 
3 

12 



53^ 



19 



I am aware of the thinness of my foundation in rearing a structure of 
half a dozen eras on nothing more than fliree or four color and texture 
features of a few thousand sherds gathered on the surface of some fifteen 
closely grouped spots. I was tempted to buttress my chronological classi- 
fication by further collecting, especially at sites from which my representa- 
tion was little more than vanishing. But my stay in Zuni is short ; the time 
that gathering, sorting, and tabulating would require, is scarcely avail- 
able ; and e^■en twice or three times the number of siu'f ace fragments would 
not siifRce to convert my tentative conclusions into positive ones. The 
final proof is in the spade; and that involves money, a gang of men, months 
of time, and an examination, if possible, of all ruins within a given radius. 
The real confirmation of my chronology I must thus of necessity leave to 
the future. But I am confident that however the present classification be 
altered in detail or supplemented by wider considerations, in essentials it 
will stand — because the essentials are obvious on the ground. 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 21 

The problems of prehistoric Zuni and of the earliest Southwest will be 
sohed only by determined limitation of attention. There has been treasure 
hunting in this fascinating region for fifty years, some with the accompani- 
ment of most painstaking recording, measuring, and photographing; but 
these dozens or hundreds of efforts, some of them costh', have produced 
scarcely a rudiment of true history. It is fatal for the investigator to 
exhume pottery in the morning, note architectural construction at noon, 
plot rooms in the afternoon, and by evening become excited over a find 
of turquoise or amulets. Such procedure may allow areas and even sites 
of most distinctively different type to be discriminated, but the finer 
transitions, on which ultimately everything depends, will be lost sight of 
under the wealth of considerations. One feature at a time, then another, 
then correlation, is the method that will convert Southwestern archaeology 
from a delight for antiquarians into a historian's task. The fine bowls, 
precious jewelry, and beautiful axes that already cumber our museums, 
will find their use ; but that time is at the end of study, when they can be 
placed and used wdth meaning, not at the beginning, when they confuse and 
weary. At present five thousand sherds can tell us more than a hundred 
whole vessels, and the bare knowledge of the average size of room in a 
dozen contiguous ruins may be more indicative than the most laborious 
survey of two or three extensive sites. 

Particularly does the necessity of concentration apply geographically. 
A promising site here and another a hundred miles away may show striking 
differences in innumerable respects. But in the present chaos of knowledge 
who can sa;y' which of these differences are due to age and which to locality 
and environment? With the chronology of Zuni, of the Hopi country, of 
the Rio Grande, of the San Juan, and of the Gila worked out independently, 
comparison may yield momentous conclusions; but comparison at present, 
however suggestive, will bear no certain fruit. If the investigator who 
enters this greatest of American archaeological fields allows himself to be 
appalled b}- the length and variety of the labors of those who have preceded 
him, his outlook will be dreary; if he recalls that but for a few scattered 
scratches the field is virgin as regards real history, and if he wisely limits 
himself, and proceeds by the common sense plan of one thing at a time 
and that hammered at vmtil it yields, he surely has before him one of the 
most promisingly productive of scientific problems. 



22 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

i 



NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL SITES. 

PlNNAWA. 

There is plenty of loose rock on the summit of this mound, but not a 
trace of the walls plotted by Mindeleff is now visible. Even the rebuilt 
corrals and the house still in use in 1885 are gone. Pottery extends at least 
fifty yards south of the wagon road, and north almost to the river. The- 
latter may be washed; the former is on higher ground than the road and 
plotted southern part of the village. The knoll is gentle, and the site of 
the open character of Mattsakya and Zuiii rather than naturally defensible 
like Kyakkima, Kolliwa, or Wimmayawa. 

Mattsakya. 

This ruin has decayed nearly as much as Pinnawa in thirty years. 
There are no standing walls whate\er, and vegetation is comparatively 
thick. The two rooms west of the shrine are fully traceable; but that is all. 
(See table 6.) 

Kyakkima. 

Kyakkima has altered little since Mindeleff 's survey. It must be noted 
that his map is oriented with east to the top of the page. The town was 
built on four distinct terraces or levels, which I estimated at thirty, fifteen, 
and fifty feet above one another. The two former figures agree with Minde- 
leff 's contours, but his lines stop before reaching the highest terrace, which 
lies dead against the face of the cliff on whose top stand the ruins of Tow- 
wayallanna. With its back against this tremendous wall of rock, is a low 
foundation, enclosing a space much larger than an ancient Pueblo room, 
which shows in Mindeleff's plan as a rounded, irregular quadrangle. To 
my eye it seemed more nearly semicircular. The lieutenant governor, when 
his attention w^as called to it, pronounced it a "head man's dance house." 
The upright and horizontal slabs at the east end of the ruin are still in place ; 
but I counted seven of the former where the plot shows five. My informant 
volunteered the observation that here prayers were spoken to the rising 
sun — somewhat as by the Zuni pekkwine today. Mindeleff's Indians 
suggested defense, and he himself conjectured graves. I will not presume 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 23 

TABLE G. 
Mattsakya. 
Second Visit. 

Black, dull, and gray, all without slip, mostly smoothened black inside 307 
Gray, crackled, polished, texture different from white and yellowish slip 12 

Red, polished, some on both sides, some with white slip on one side 

White slip on one side 

Yellowish slip — about half the pieces on both sides, the other half 
usually have a polished graj', perhaps slip gray, on the outside 

Corrugated black 

Corrugated white — some with thin white slip, others with thick gray 
smooth slip (?) on inner side 

Black on white; only two show hatching. Pattern mostly on inside 
and generally true black, but there are a few brown pieces 23 

Brown on yellow 

Pattern inside, outside white, yellow, or gray 17 
Pattern inside, outside red 2 
Pattern on both sides 5 24 

Brown on grayish, from very light to dark 11 58 



12 


319 


12 


12 


30 

47 


1- 

77 


5 


5 


10 


10 



Black on red; only one hatched; undecorated side either white or red 11 11 

Red on white 

Red on yellow ' 2 2 

White on red 



Three color: black and red on white: but black is often brown; red, 

brownish; white, yellowish 14 

Three color : deep yellow ground with red pattern edged in brown 6 20 



Total pottery 514 

.Lava pieces, large and small ' 12 

Obsidian, mostly small pieces • * 14 

Arrow point, milky, translucent 1 



24 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

to decide the conflict. Two of the three lower levels are depressed in the 
center, suggesting ruined house walls surrounding plazas. This was also 
the lieutenant governor's explanation. We may have been misled, however, 
by the fact that the interior cross walls which Mindeleff diagrams are not 
visible today. Still, one would expect that a solid cluster of rooms would 
fall into a heap higher rather than lower in the middle. (See table 7.) 



KOLLIWA. 

This ruin, named to me by several informants before it was visited, is 
three miles distant from Zuni, about 15 degrees east of north or along the 
magnetic needle. It lies at the edge and near the eastern end of a red sand- 
stone ridge that stretches for several miles north of Zuni in a general east 
and west direction, or more nearly northeast and southwest. Some three 
or four himdred feet below the cliff and talus that form the top of this ridge, 
a nearly level bench, a short hundred yards in width, extends for some dis- 
tance, more or less intermittently. At several places small but deep can- 
yons head suddenly from the bench A.ith a sheer drop. On two small knolls 
on both sides of one of these drops is Kolliwa, the Avestern settlement meas- 
uring about 50 by 75 feet, the eastern 60 by 120. The knolls rise but slightly 
above the bench, and each ruin has a long straight wall along its back, 
facing the bench and guarding it from attack on this its weakest north- 
westerly side. These walls run parallel with the cliff. On their other sides, 
the outer walls closely follow the steep rim of the knolls. The choice of 
the sites from defensive motive is obvious. It is true that the cliff seems 
to loom above both ; but its height as well as its distance would cause an 
arrow to be aimless or spent before it fell in either part of the town, and 
would render any other missile totally futile. 

A hundred and fifty yards down the canyon from where it heads between 
the twin towTilets, is a Cottonwood, the only one in miles. A few steps 
below, is a spring, a diminutive pool with a few stones built around it by 
sheep herders. When seen, it was dark red from the mud of recent rains, 
and scarcely drinkable even to the thirsty. But the canyon bed seemed wet, 
and no doubt a hole in a well chosen spot would have filled with clear seepage. 
At any rate, the cottonwood attests permanent water. 

It is diflficult to decide where the inhabitants of this wild fastness grew 
their food. Their canyon is a rocky little gorge; and while it soon takes 
a calmer course, it is a mile before, uniting with other washes, it spreads 
into a nearly level flood plain, and an unfavorable clay one at that; while 
the nearest part of Zuiii Valley is a mile and a half distant. Just below the 



TABLE 7. 

Analysis of Painted Potsheeds from Kyakkima 
Black on white: 
Black or dark brown on white; outside red 
" " '' " " " " white 

Shiny green on white; outside red 

Black or dark brown on white; inside white or gray 

Green on white; inside white 

Black on white; inside black on white 

Black on white; inside red 



Dark brown on pale yellow 



outside yellow 
" brown 



inside pale yellow 
" brown 
" reddish 
" gray 
" same colors 
" " " yellow, inside same colors 

Black, glossy greon, or dark brown on gray, light brown, or greenish 
gray 
Pattern inside 
Pattern outside 

Black on Red: 
Black on red; outside red 
Black on salmon; outside salmon 
Glossy dark green on red; outside red 

Red on Redd is! i: 
Styleof Yuman ware; pattern outside; inside same color 

While on Red: 
"^Tiite on red; inside glossy black on red 
" " " " maroon on white 

" " " " green on white 

" « " " white 

Three Colored: 
Black and red on white; inside red 
" " " buff; 
" " " white; " black 
Black and red or maroon on gray or buff or yellow; inside same 

ground color 
Dark brown and red on white ; inside white 

" " " " " yellow; inside brown on white 

Glossy black, green, or bro\\Ti and red or reddish brown on white; 

outside red, reddish, or white 
Black and white on red; outside red on white 

Four shades from pale yellow to dark red ; outside polished gray 



10 



10 



11 

4 
1 



70 



Sixteen of the above show hatching in the pattern 

25 



26 



Anthropological Papers American Museuin of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 



built on knolls, however, and for some distance along the ridge in both 
directions, at the same relative height, the spurs between the numerous 
little canyons are sand topped; and while now overgrown with cedar and 
pifion, and somewhat rolling, they might have afforded small level patches 
on which with careful nursing corn could be grown. 

The population of Kolliwa was never large. The two towns together 





\ 

\ 






\ 




\ 


Af 


\ 
\ 
\ 








\ 


H- 


\ 




\ 




\ 




\ 




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K 


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SCALE 



-1 ; 



Fit' I _,-'^ 

^EST KOLLIWA 

D DOOR OR ENTRANCE 

W WINDOW TWELVE INCHES HIGH FIFTEEN INCHES LONG 

M MUD STILL IN CRACKS OF lYALLS 

WALLS TRACEABLE. FROM SIX FEET HIGH TO LEVEL WITH GROUND 

BRINK OF KNOLL 



may have harbored a hundred and fifty people. But living rooms are dis- 
tinctly traceable only on the peaks of the two knolls, and the outer defensive 
walls may each have enclosed only a few dwellings. 

The masonry varies in quality, and in thickness from nearly one to at 
least two feet, k window, three or four feet from the ground, and clay 



1916. 



Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 




Fig. 2 



FAST KOLLIWA 

— hMLLS TRACEABLE. SOME STANDING UP TO FIVE FEET HIGH 
- — BRINK OF KNOLL 



28 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

mortar with imbedded pebbles, in the chinks of the best preserved masonry, 
may })e seen in West KoUiwa. Too great a recency need not be argued from 
these featiires; but a notable anticjuity is also out of the question. 

This inference is confirmed by the pottery, which is most clearly of 
period A. The only distincti\e circumstance is the total absence, among 
more than a hundred sherds, of corrugated ware; and this may be accidental. 

Sketches of the twin sites are appended. I had not been led to expect 
a real ruin, so a knife point, slab of stone, broken match, and walking stick 
took the place of pencil, paper, scale, and tape. Close accuracy was thus 
out of the question, but the two diagrams are approximately true. 



Site \V. 

A third of a mile northeast of the go\ernment day school, and a hundred 
and fifty yards from Governor Lewis's house, the children found sherds and 
brought them in. The site has been irrigated of recent years, and besides 
two or three gentle rises of a couple of feet, there is nothing to cause the 
faintest suspicion of former occupation, except a small proportion of pebbles 
in a few spots. The pottery is of type A in standard proportions, except 
that corrugated ware is unusually abundant; even obsidian is present — 
I picked up the flake myself. It is however the only type A site which is 
totally ruinless and rockless and on the level ground. 



TOWWAYALLANNA. 

Towwayallanna is the impressive mountain that all who write of Zuni 
have been impelled to mention. Formed by age long erosion between the 
Zuni River and a large and long wash on the southwest, it dominates the 
imaginatiorf as it does the landscape. Flat-topped, sheer-walled, a mile in 
each direction, and a thousand feet high, it has three times sheltered the 
frightened Zuiii in the historic period — including twelve continuous years 
after the great rebellion of 1680, — and no doubt served them as refuge on 
more than one occasion before. In their own creation myth, they found 
safety on its summit from the flood as well as from their foes; and their 
shrines to Ahhayuta his elder brother and Ahhayuta his younger brother — 
the war god boy twins — are still maintained on the top in undiminished 
sanctity, as innumerable bits of turquoise, shell, and every kind of valuable 
thing attest. There are two trails which are difficult if not dangerous; a 
third can be comfortably descended to the rolling sand hills of the peach 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 29 

orchards in ten minutes, and climbed if necessary on burro back; but it 
has been improved for the purpose. In old days it would have constituted 
nearly as formidable a barrier to storm as the other two. 

Locally, Americans know the mountain by its Zuni name. In books 
it is written Thunder Mountain, for which Gushing is probably responsible, 
and which is as striking and as worthy a designation for the majestic rock 
as coidd be desired, and in the best vein of that man of genius. Unfortu- 
nately, I must incline to Mrs. Stevenson's cooler interpretation of Corn 
INIountain, not only on Zuni authority, but on my own imperfect knowledge 
of the speech. Thunder is towowo, and corn towwa, in the orthography 
which I follow. I have more frequently heard Toayallanna — also, it is 
true, toa more often than towwa ; but I suspect the w"\v to be slurred after o 
in both words. 

I add for the advantage of those who may have the good fortune to 
follow me in a stay, however transient, at "the middle place," that it is 
impossible to carry away a truly full remembrance of the country of the 
Zuni, — of their earth — until he has looked down the valley from the rim 
of this looming mesa. If, in addition, one be privileged to see distant rain- 
storms tra\-el among the still sunshine, he will know the world the Zuiii 
heart dreams of as well as the one its body walks. 

The ruins, which do not appear to bear any other name than that of the 
mountain, have been surveyed and described by Mindeleff. They do not 
seem to have altered to any sensil)le extent. The southeastern portion is 
practically on top of Kyakkima, six or scNen hundred feet below. My visit 
occurred after a week of rains; and two natural ]:)asins of water were seen 
which with a little damming might have been extended to the size of those 
mentioned by Mindeleff. The ruin is the largest in the vicinity. It gives 
the casual impression of having sheltered a thousand people; but is so 
scattered that it cannot be surveyed in one sweep of the eye, and may have 
harbored twice as many. The a^■ailable building stone did not break into 
even slabs; hence the walls are shambling and tiunbledown, and afford no 
ground for estimating the age of oth( i ruins by comparison with the condi- 
tion of this two hundred and twenty-two year abandoned masonry. Part 
of the mountain top is arable sand; but the area available is too small, if 
ever it was utilized, to have supported more than a minute fraction of the 
population. 

The potsherds of course are of type A. They are frequent at some dis- 
tance from the structures. A pair of willing hands guided by a sufficiently 
patient brain, might gather a thousand pounds without a tool. All five 
members of our party collected at different spots; so that I suspect a some- 
what undue proportion of colored pieces, and that perhaps half of the 
monotonous black and dull unpolished fragments within roach were left. 



30 ApJhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XVIII, 

Red ware is relatively abundant; but if sherds red on one side and white 
on the other had been counted as of the latter color, the proportions would 
have been exactly reversed. Nineteen of the one hundred and sixty pieces 
reckoned as red are yellow o^•erpainted with a streaky dark maroon; twenty- 
four are black or gray on the opposite side, sixty-five white; and only 
fifty-two red on both sides. Even these were possibly sometimes given a 
white slip before the red-burning wash of yellow ocher was applied. 

White sherds include some with the pure lustreless crumbly slip of Cliff- 
Dweller vessels; others ranging from white through cream to yellowish, 
polished like modern ware, and in some cases probably fragments of pat- 
terned jars; while a fair proportion seem to be without true slip, and of a 
gray which but for its light shade would have l^een reckoned as dull or 
"black." 

Decorated ware, with few exceptions, might be modern. Black on white 
fragments are about as numerous as l)lack and red on white ; but many may 
l)e from three-colored vessels. The same is probably true of some of the 
red on white sherds, but others appear to have been painted in these two 
colors. Some glossiness appears in a few dark green or brown patterns; 
but the luster is thin. 

^YIMMAYAWA. 

This ruin is visible from the Gallup road, an eighth of a mile west of" 
which it follows the outline of a small hill. The distance from Zuni was said 
to be five miles. I estimate it at three and one half. There is a living spring 
near by, still known by the name of the ancient town; and a long wash, 
which the road follows for a distance, must carry water below ground, 
since it supports a Cottonwood in fair condition. The levels along this 
stream bed would sviffice for some patches of corn; but the farms of the 
settlement must in the main have been in Zuni Valley a couple of miles away. 
The ruin is perhaps a mile to a mile and a half distant from site X, about in 
line with it and the Black Rock school. 

Wimmayawa could have housed two or three hundred people. Its 
east and west, and north and south walls conform to the lines of the hill 
on which it is situated, though less closely than at cramped little Kolliwa. 
Defensibility and water led to the selection of the spot for habitation. 

Most of the walls that are first visible, are recent corrals, probably fol- 
lowing old foundations almost throughout, but with the inner walls removed 
to build up the enclosure. One of the corrals is in splendid condition, and 
its entire interior is level with sheep dung. In one place the loose, unmor- 
tared corral rests visiblv on an old wall. The difference is striking, but 



1916.] Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 31 

indicative of diversity of use rather than of deterioration of art. We too 
build our dwelHngs better than our barns. Outside of three obvious fences, 
the masonry is probably all ancient, and where tolerably p^eser^-ed, of much 
the same type as in the just mentioned piece of foundation. A room eight 
by seventeen feet, and another ten square, are in fair condition. These seem 
normal interior sizes at period A sites. Mud mortar was observed in place. 
Building stone is at hand. It does not slab as e\'enly as at KoUiwa, but at 
least as well as at Kyakkima and far better than that of Towwayallanna ; 
and the quality of the masonry is in direct accord with the nature of the 
stone. It would therefore be rash, in this region, to argue age from condi- 
tion of walls, or to assert a imiform decline of the building art with the 
progress of time. 

So far as I know, AYimmayawa has never l)een plotted, and I was there- 
fore inclined to attempt a sketch survey. An encounter with a rattlesnake, 
presumably attracted by the innumerable lizards and small rabbits that 
haunt the broken walls, however led me to conclude that such a rough dia- 
gram as I could make alone with the aid of a stick, would not be worth the 
risk of stepping with unleggined feet over another one of the species; and 
I abandoned the endeavor. 

Pottery was only fairly abundant ; and as at other ruins, I found more in 
the open spaces just outside of the town than in the debris of the rooms. 
The kinds and proportions of ware are thoroughly representative of type A. 
About a third of the red pieces were white on one side. Of the eleven 
"white" four were yellowish, and five showed the porous bluish surface so 
prevalent at He'i'tli'annanna. All the red on white sherds, and some of 
the black on white, seem to have come from vessels that originally bore 
both black and red patterns on a white surface. 



Shoptluwwayala or Shoptluwwalaava. 

This little knoll measures 65 yards from north to south, where it is 
well defined, and about 120 from east to west, in both of which directions 
it fades out into the surrounding level ground. The shrine of the Yellow 
Sallimoppiya is nearly in the exact center. The spot has unquestionably 
been inhabited. The complete absence of building stone forces the possi- 
bility that the builders of period B may have used adobe clay. But it 
would be fantastic to rear any imaginings on this speculation until thorough 
excavations have been performed. It is more likely that all the surface 
rock has been carried awav to be built into nearbv Zuiii. 



3'? Anthropological Papers American Museum of N^alural History. [\'ol. XVIII, 



He'i'tli'annanna. 

This site, whose name seems to mean "bhie wall," is on the road to 
KoUiwa, about two miles from Ziini. A small knoll, five or six feet high, was 
seen a few yards to the left of the path, and perhaps two hundred yards east 
of the easterly end of AUa'imnuitlanna, a steep ridge paralleling for a mile 
or so the higher and longer one at whose base KoUiwa is nestled. As I 
approached, a few slabs from an abandoned shrine liecame visible on the 
summit; then the indicative pebbles appeared in the soil, and a moment 
later the first potsherd — a white one — was found. There were needed 
only the observations that no building stones lay about and that the site 
was a small one — perhaps fifteen yards across — to make a habitation of 
period B morally certain. The pottery, though not abundant, was numer- 
ous enough for ample confirmation. There were no red pieces, and only 
two small black ones, one of them a bit in such condition that its classifica- 
tion must be doubtful. All the other seventy-five sherds were white, four 
painted with black patterns, the rest plain. Of these, somewhat more than 
half presented a porous whitish slip of weathered appearance, while some 
twenty-five or thirty were of a distinct bluish gray, pale enough to be reck- 
oned as white. There was not a single corrugated piece. The uniformity 
as well as distinctiveness of the ware at this little site is remarkable. 

It may be noted that a hundred yards to the north, near one of the lowest 
cedars on the gentle slope that fronts toward Zuni, lay a large brown- 
painted creamy-yellow potsherd — typical modern ware. Its appearance 
and feel were distincth- new. It may have rested where found a few days 
or se\eral years. Some himdreds of yards further, right in the path, a 
smaller piece of typical black ware was fomid — with eciiial lack of apparent 
reason for its isolated presence. These examples, together with the occur- 
rence of a piece of bottle glass and of American made china on the surface 
of Shopthu\"\valawa among the numerous sherds of the prehistoric period, 
emphasize the slight weight that can be attached — in surface observations 
— to miique specimens, and the necessity of basing inferences on series 
of some magnitude. 

He'i'tli'annanna is not far from the northern and now cidtixated edge of 
Zuni Valley. The slight slope on which it stands ma^' also be cultivable, 
though this seems doubtful e\-en for the acclimated native corn. Water 
may once have been obtainable in some cre\ice at the base of the nearby 
ridge. 



1916.] , Kroeber, Zimi Potsherds. 33 



Site Y. 

jNIore puzzling are a few potsherds found a quarter of a mile further in 
the same road, at what may be called He'i'tli'annanna Pishlankwi, or " Blue- 
wall north." Right alongside the road, nearly all about one of the small 
cedars that begin to abound here, and none more than a few steps distant, 
lay eighteen discoverable pieces. All but one had a black pattern on white; 
and the exception was a minute fragment that might well have come from an 
unpainted spot on a decorated vessel. The other seventeen pieces classify 
as follows: — 

Broad bands Hatched 

Inside black 2 7 

Inside dark gray — .3 

Inside white 5 — 

7 10 

There is variety enough within this narrow compass to demonstrate 
against the possibility that all the pieces were remnants of one, or even of 
two pots, that happened to be broken here at some time. The white is of 
the impolished type of period B. But the site seems most unlikely. The 
ground is sloping bed rock, covered only with thin patches of disintegrating 
slabs and sand. Fifty yards to the east is an elevation, the crest of one of 
innumerable spurs extending at right angles to the above mentioned moun- 
tain ridge. This spur looks like the natural spot for settlement in the 
Aicinity; but search produced not a single evidence of occupation on the 
summit. 

This site, if it really be such, with ancient He'i'tli'annanna on one side 
of it and more modern Kolliwa on the other, makes three in which no corru- 
gated pottery was discovered. 



Site X. 

The opposite is the case at nameless site X, where more than two thirds 
of a tolerable series was corrugated — every piece white. I cannot locate 
this site exactly. It is three or more miles from Zufii, to the east of Kol- 
liwa. Our first attempt to find the latter ruin was made with a youthful 
guide who proved not to know the way and led us to the right. At last we 
stopped in the middle of nowhere, — a sandy rolling tract away from water 
and nearly half a mile from the long cliff ridge at whose foot Kolliwa lies 



34 Anthropological Papers American Museum of A'atural History. [\o\. X^^III, 

further west. In several spots here pottery was thick; but the usual pebbles 
of sites of type B were absent, and only one piece of the normally frequent 
vesicular lava was found. Why anyone should settle in this deserted spot 
rather than in a hundred others about, I cannot understand. Perhaps it 
was at one time a cornfield; divested of its crop of pifions and cedars, its 
white sand might yet be made to yield grain; and the sherds may possibly 
be from jars brought to the growing field. The site certainly has all the 
typical marks of a Period B site in an exaggerated degree; but, as usual 
where material is sufficiently abundant, there was a sprinkling of black and 
of red pieces — the majority dull red outside, blackish inside. Not one of 
the 152 sherds bore any evidence of having been polished, as was customary 
on ornamented ware in period A. 



Shunntekkya. 

An old Zufii woman who saw my young friends picking up sherds before 
her door, and learned that they were for me, brought a rag full which her 
father, six or eight years ago, had gathered, perhaps while sheep herding, 
and carried home to be groimd and mixed with clay for new pots. I could 
not learn where the ruin is, except that it lies perhaps ten miles, as the 
Indians ^'aguely count them, to the soutlu ast, somewhere behind Towwayal- 
lanna. I was loath to include such data; but as a coimt revealed perfectly 
typical period A proportions, and as the collector's motive would have led 
to no deliberate selection, I have added the figures. 



"Hawwikku B." 

The same considerations apply to a smaller lot subsequently offered to 
me as from Haw^vikku, near Ojo Caliente, one of the three outlying farming 
settlements of the Zuni. But here there is a second difficulty. Hawwikku 
was one of the seven cities; it has ruins of a church; and it was inhabited 
until the Pueblo rebellion. But a glance at the sample proved it to be of 
type B. The owner was cjuestioned, but, as I had never been on the site, 
not with much definiteness; and I only elicited that the sherds were picked 
up, also for pottery making, at Hawwikku itself. He may have selected, 
by some fancy, only such pieces as happened to be of the earlier type; or 
he may have gathered on a spot near HaA\'wikku which represents a settle- 
ment of an earlier time than the historic Hawwukku. I have therefore 
called the place "Hawv\dkku B." The next investigator may possibly 



191(3.] Kroeber, Ziuii Potsherds. 35 

identify it with little trouble. I was tempted to acquire further collections 
of the same kind, of which there must be many in the towTi; but while the 
Zuni are a reliable people, it seemed wisest not to swamp myself wdth mate- 
rial from locations I had not seen. 

Zuhi, 

August 3, 1915. 



POSTSCRIPT. 

A delay in printing allows me to add references to literature, though 
these remain references, unfortunately, more largely than they reveal 
relations. 

Bandelier in his various Avritings, summed up in his "Final Report" 
in \olume IV of the American Series of Papers of the Archaeological Insti- 
tute of America, distinguishes the earlier period of black on white ware 
from the later one that extends into historic time. He notes also that 
obsidian occurs only in ruins of the later era. 

Dr. Fewkes spent part of his first stay at Zuiii in an archaeological 
reconnaissance somewhat more extended than mine, on which he has an 
admirable paper in the first volume of the Journal of American Archaeology 
and Ethnology. As Dr. Fewkes principally examhied ruins as such, and 
makes no reference to potsherds, his and my preliminary essays present 
few points of contact. 

In the twenty-second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Eth- 
nology, Dr. Fewkes describes the results of two summers of exploration 
in the ruins on the Little Colorado and in adjacent territory. The Little 
Colorado pottery bears certain obvious similarities to ancient Zuiii ware, 
but there are also striking differences that impede immediate correlation. 
Dr. Fewkes' numerous illustrations of whole vessels do not suggest very 
strongly my sherds of type A, while his scanty references to corrugated ware 
seem to preclude the close connection of his finds with my type B. His 
predominating attention to complete vessels and my limitation to surface 
fragments may account for some of the discrepancy. But his frequency map 
on plate 70, with its revelation of a strong preponderance of red ware on the 
Little Colorado, disposes offhand of any complete cultural identity of this 
region with Zufii A. It would be rash to guess whether the differences 
represent distinctions of available material, of period, or of contemporaneous 
but inherently diverse cultures. 

This uncertainty is increased by the one published account of the Hemen- 



36 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History [Vol. X^'II1, 

way Expedition archaeological results, a description by Dr. Fewkes in the 
Putnam Anniversary Volume, of the discoveries by Gushing in his exca^'a- 
tions at Hallonawa, across the river from Zuiii, and at Heshshota'utUa, fifteen 
miles east. Dr. Fewkes identifies this ware, now storefl in the Peabody 
Musevnn, with that of the Little Colorado. IMany pieces are clearly of 
Zufii type A; but again, the prevalence of red ware does not fit with my 
surface results. Dr. Fewkes also sees a greater difference between this 
late prehistoric Zuni pottery and modern Zuni ware than I am able to per- 
ceive, whereas he appears to connect the latter with the northern Cliff- 
Dweller pottery, in type if not historically. Dr. Fewkes also scarcely 
refers to the possibility of continuous cultural development within an area, 
or to Spanish influences, while he stresses far more strongly than I should 
dare, clan migrations and hypothetical compositions of tribes. Granting 
these latter to have occurred to the extent that he indicates, it would seem 
to remain to be established, instead of assumed, that such accretions would 
seriously affect the type of ware in customary manufacture at a pueblo or 
in a group of towns. 

Mr. N. C. Nelson, in the concluding paragraphs of his "Pueblo Ruins 
in the Galisteo Basin," in volume XV of the Anthropological Papers of 
the American Museum of Natural History, has a reference to glazed pottery 
in late prehistoric and historic times, which shows that ware of this type is 
chronologically of sufficient importance to receive closer attention at Zuili 
in the future than I have given it in my cursory examination. Mr. Nelson's 
Galisteo specimens in the American Museum however jeveal a very much 
heavier and rougher type of glazing than I have observed in Zuni potsherds, 
and the style is apparently the usual one for some periods at Galisteo, 
whereas at Zuni its employment seems always to have been sporadic or 
hesitating. A time correlation between the two regions will no doubt be 
possible on the basis of glazing, but superficially the wares of the two regions 
do not resemble each other enough for any off-hand identification. 

A sequential determination which Mr. Nelson has made from stratifica- 
tion at San Cristobal, which promises to be of the utmost importance, 
remains unpublished and unavailable to date. 

On the other hand. Dr. A. V. Kidder, in his " Pottery of the Pajarito 
Plateau," in the second volume of the Memoirs of the American Anthropo- 
logical Association, sets up a valuable sequence of wares in another part of 
New Mexico. Careful study and critical judgment compensate in this 
work for the absence of any discovered stratification. Dr. Kidder dis- 
tinguishes a black-and-white, a "school-house," a Frijolito, and a Pajaritan 
period. The ware of the second of these types he connects, though without 
identifying, with the Hemenway prehistoric material from Zuni described 



1916. J Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds. 37 

by Dr. Fewkes. This would make Dr. Kidder's first period correspond with 
my B, his last three with my A. 

Dr. Kidder has also done me the favor to look over my sherds, and pro- 
nounces my period A ware to be, at least in general, of the type of the 
Heshshota'utUa pottery in the Peabody Museum. He also regards my sherds 
from He'i'tli'annanna as closely similar to the typical ware of a rude and 
presumably early culture discovered by him in the San Juan drainage, as 
yet undescribed and tentatively named "slab house." This correlation 
confirms the distinctness of the He'i'tli'annanna ware which I had implied 
at least by exclusion in my table 5, and is of the greatest interest in that it 
indicates the probal)ility of another period, or at any rate definite sub-era, 
at Zuni. 

Dr. Kidder has also pointed out to me that the difference between dark 
and light corrugated ware is likely to be the efPect of long continued weather- 
ing. This would indeed give some measure of age for exposed pieces, but 
probably does away with the distinction between dark and light corrugated 
pottery as essentially characteristic of period. Determinations of period 
will therefore have to be made, in this ware, by its total frequency relative 
to all pottery, as I had already inclined to do in my fifth table, or b;^' the 
nature of the corrugation itself. 

In spite of indisputable local and non-temporal differences, as attested 
for instance by the absence of Dr. Kidder's "biscuit" ware from Zuni as 
well as by the distinctive character of glazing there; in spite too, of the 
paucity of my material, and the fact that all of Mr. Nelson's and part of 
Dr. Kidder's ceramic data remain unpublished, it appears to be clear that 
chronological, or at least sequential, determinations can already be made 
for at least three New Mexican regions, and that these evince certain corre- 
lations among each other. The successful conversion of the archaeological 
problem of the Southwest from an essentially exploratory and descriptive 
one, with interpretation based chiefly on Spanish documentary and native 
legendary sources, into a self-contained historic one, seems therefore at 
hand. 

American Museum of Natural History, 
February 12, 1916. 



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Volume XII. 

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IV. (In press.) 




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